Author Archives: Marcus Cramer

Five contemplations on the gods: A path to community and friendship (part 5)

Continued from:

FIRST CONTEMPLATION: THE GODS

SECOND CONTEMPLATION: UTOPIA

THIRD CONTEMPLATION: THE SAGE

FOURTH CONTEMPLATION: THE FRIEND

FIFTH CONTEMPLATION: THE DEPARTED

Quote: Fragment from On the Gods by Philodemus[1]

Even if the gods’ community as a species is aloof from the supplying of things of practical help in order to motivate their companionship, their friendship communicates their feelings. For it is not possible for them to maintain their community as a species without any social intercourse. And indeed even amongst us, weak as we are, and needing from our friendship in addition things of practical help, no longer does our friendship to our friends we have lost provide practical help; and nonetheless our admiring reverence for characters which are peers of our own itself binds us together in affection, even in the highest degree. However, the gods also accept from each other what supplies their own needs, even though they are able to provide these things for themselves, just as we human beings sometimes do from those who have the same things as ourselves.

Commentary: divine friendship

In this passage, Philodemus is describing the lifestyle of the gods and how they interact with each other. Just like humans, they live in communities and have friends. What makes them different from us is that they do not share in our weakness, and do not need friendship to offer a sense of security by taking care of each other if they are sick, help them in case of financial difficulties, etc. And yet, the gods still choose to have friends. In fact they will even go as far accepting “from each other what supplies their own needs”, which seems to mean that they provide each other with gifts of some sort, perhaps a kind of nutrition that maintains their immortality, much like the ambrosia from the gods of myth, even though they can obtain it by themselves. The friendly gesture of gift exchange seems to serve a more psychological purpose, contributing to their blissfulness.

In order to make this clear, we can think of Epicurean friendship as having three levels (according to David Armstrong): (1) Friendships based on virtue, trust and mutual utility. (2) Friendships based on our strong natural desire for affection and open self-expression. This is only achievable after accomplishing the first kind of friendship. (3) God-like friendship, satisfying a desire for affection and open self-expression, apart from all consideration of utility.

This third type of friendship is mainly accessible to the gods, but only accessible to humans after the death of a friend once the mourning for our loss of them is over and we come to enjoy their memory. This is because once a loved one is dead, they no longer contribute to our basic needs beyond the psychological wellbeing acquired from the good memories. This helps us answer a question about why it is that Epicureans worship gods that do not intervene in human affairs, bestow favors, etc. The same could be said about our dead friends: why honor them when they are no longer there to serve our needs. This is because they fulfill a psychological need, even though they are no longer with us and in fact they don’t exist as their souls have been annihilated with their bodies.

However, they still exist in our memories, and this is why Epicurus referred to friendship as an immortal good, because even in death, they continue to impact us and they contributed in making us who we are. Remembering our friends is not a passive activity. This is why Epicurus set up rituals and festivities to commemorate his dead friends, Metrodorus and Polyaenus, as well as his parents and brothers.

Practice: friendship beyond death

First lesson: grieve for the loss of your friends. For Epicureans, friends can include family members as well, as is demonstrated by his devotion to his parents and brothers. He advises us not to suppress our emotions when faced with the loss of loved ones. The ancient writer Plutarch writes the following about the Epicureans: “They disagree with those who would do away with grief and tears and lamentation at the death of friends, and say that an absence of grief that renders us totally insensible stems from another great evil: hardness or a passion for notoriety so excessive as to be insane.”[2]

Second lesson: cultivate the good memories of your dead friends. After the grieving period which will vary from person to person, keep the flame of your friendship alive. They are a part of your life and nothing can take that away. This does not mean that you have to think about them all the time but every now and then, take a moment to bring up the pleasant times spent with that person in your mind and be thankful for the happiness they brought and continue to bring.

Third lesson: develop rituals to honor your friends. You might have kept photos, presents, letters from your lost friends. These are now sacred objects. It might be a good idea to develop some symbolic gestures and rituals to honor your friend. Perhaps there is a favorite song you shared. Perhaps you can listen to that music on your friend’s birthday. Or maybe you can just close your eyes and bring back a specific memory to your mind’s eye. There are countless ways to commemorate your loved ones.

Forth lesson: remember that the divine nature of friendship transcends life and death. This is how you become eternal. This is not just the final lesson of this Fifth Contemplation but of all five contemplations combined.

This is how you become a god. Atheists and other nonbelievers in supernatural religions are often asked this question: if there is no supernatural god ordering the universe and giving us purpose, if all that exists are atoms, molecules, forces, “stuff”, then all is without meaning. With no higher purpose, everything is empty, we are all alone. Many atheists bite the bullet and fall into nihilism. An Epicurean rejects this mode of reasoning entirely. We are not alone and without purpose. Life has meaning. Once we have a friend who acknowledges our existence and our value and we recognize them in return, and are committed to continue doing so for the long term, we become godlike. As Epicurus said to his friend and disciple Colotes, “go about as one immortal in my eyes, and think of me as immortal too.”

CONCLUSION

And now we see the connection between the two ideas mentioned in the beginning of our introduction: philosophizing with a like-minded friend and living as a god among men. It is through friendship that we realize the highest ideal of the philosophical life.

Through the five contemplations, we have progressively descended from the domain of the gods outside our world, to a hypothetical utopian society, to the Epicurean communities of sages from the past, to the gesture of reverence between to philosopher friends, to culminate with the memories of lost friends conjured up in our minds.

An atheist could argue that we could very much have come up with much of the same philosophy without any reference to gods that probably do not exist in the first place.[3] This may be the case. But in response to that, we could say that by invoking the divine as a concept, we are invoking something that has the highest value to us, beyond just atoms and void.

When describing Epicurean philosophy, people often refer to it as a materialist philosophy that rejects the supernatural and divine providence, or a hedonistic philosophy defending a life of pleasure, albeit a modest reasonable pleasure defined as an absence of suffering of the body and tranquility of the mind. But these descriptions are incomplete and give us a very limited scope of what the philosophy is really about. By putting the gods front and center in their function as role models and comparing the immortality of the gods to that of the relationship between friends, it might be most accurate for us to conclude that Epicureanism is first and foremost a religion of friendship.

Notes:

[1] Quote from article Utility and Affection in Epicurean Friendship by David Armstrong.
[2] From Plutarch, That Epicurus actually makes a pleasant life impossible. Quote from http://www.attalus.org/translate/epicurus.html
[3] Many modern Epicureans consider themselves atheists and think that modern Epicureanism no longer has any use for any conception of the divine. This article was intended to give an alternative to this perspective by rethinking what we understand as being divine. For more on this debate, read The Third Way to Think about the Epicurean Gods.

Five contemplations on the gods: A path to community and friendship (part 4)

Continued from:

FIRST CONTEMPLATION: THE GODS

SECOND CONTEMPLATION: UTOPIA

THIRD CONTEMPLATION: THE SAGE

FOURTH CONTEMPLATION: THE FRIEND

Quote: Fragment of a letter by Epicurus to Colotes [1]

You, as one revering my remarks on that occasion, were seized with a desire, not accounted for by my lecture, to embrace me by clasping my knees and lay hold of me to the whole extent of the contact that is customarily established in revering and supplicating certain personages. You therefore caused me to consecrate you in return and demonstrate my reverence… Go about as one immortal in my eyes, and think of me as immortal too.

Commentary: friendship, the key that unlocks godhood

We now reach the core of Epicurean godhood, the ultimate manifestation of what it truly means to be divine. In this scene depicted in one of Epicurus’ letters meant to be read by his community, he portrays one of his closest disciples, Colotes, showing reverence for him and he in turn returns the favor. This gesture goes beyond a simple sign of appreciation; it has religious value. This scene would become immensely popular with later Epicureans when recounting the hagiographies of their tradition. Enemies of Epicureans would mock the over the top gestures of affection that existed within these communities.

At first, what we see is an overzealous disciple overcome with a fanatical need to worship his guru. After all, Epicurus could be seen as something of a spiritual master akin to Jesus or the Buddha. However, this gesture seems to have caught Epicurus off guard at first, as it refers to Colotes’ “desire, not accounted for by my lecture”. But then, Epicurus mirrors the action directed to him by his disciple by returning that gesture back at him. He turned what could have been an awkward moment into a philosophical lesson, but also into a symbolic scene that would be remembered by future practitioners of his philosophy.

Epicurus has often been criticized putting himself too much at the center of his philosophy. He has often been viewed as greedy for attention and fame. After all, why would he institute in his will an annual day to celebrate him (and Metrodorus) after his death, as well as a monthly celebration of himself and his best friend every twentieth of the month during his lifetime in his honor, the famous Eikas gatherings? All of this is only partly true. It would be more accurate to see Epicurus as a sort of “first among equals”. Epicurus did not found his philosophy alone, but with the aid of Metrodorus, Poyenus, Hermarchus and others. His annual celebration from his will is supposed to be in conjunction with funerary rites honoring his parents and brothers, showing his devotion to his family. And the monthly Eikas celebrations honor both him and his closest friend Metrodorus as a pair. Other friends such as Polyaenus and Pythocles were also honored after their deaths. By associating the honoring of his friends with religious rituals normally meant to celebrate gods and important individuals that are elevated to a status of godhood, he is placing friendship at the center of his philosophy of happiness.

This association of friendship with godhood is made obvious by the final part of the quoted fragment: “Go about as one immortal in my eyes, and think of me as immortal too”. How does this work? After all, unlike gods, our loved ones are notoriously mortal and losing them is a source of suffering. In what way can our friendships make us immortal? This will be the subject of the Fifth Contemplation.

Practice: building friendships

First lesson: take measures to make friends. In his Treatise On Choices and Avoidances, Philodemus says: “Since he does not cut short the long extent of his life, he always begins new activities and friendly attachments”. He adds: “He will treat with much care as many people as he can, and be thankful to those who have treated him kindly, in particular because he hopes that he will share in some goods with them or that he will receive some benefits by these same people in the future…”[2]. Here it seems we are beyond the restricted circle of close friends, engaging with society at large. This is what Epicureans might mean by practicing philanthropy. There is something here resembling enlightened self interest. We benefit others and we benefit in return. There is something transactional about this kind of relationship. But this is just a first step. What starts as something based on utility can become something more intimate. “Every friendship is an excellence in itself, even though it begins in mutual advantage.”[3] Being socially active will lead to developing more affectionate ties over time.

Second lesson: show your gratitude and generosity to the friends you have. Gratitude is one of the core values of Epicurean philosophy, especially with one’s friends. An Epicurean will be generous with his friends, willing to sacrifice his own comfort in order to make his friend’s feel good. Even when financially struggling, he will prefer to increase his own frugality than lack generosity for his friends. He will care for them when they are sick, give aid when they are struggling financially, protect them when they are in danger and under extreme circumstances, even sacrifice his life. He will also give them counsel and advice, with honesty, even if that means telling hard truths. Epicurus says: “When the sage contends with necessity, he is skilled at giving rather than taking — such a treasury of self-reliance has he found.”[4]

Third lesson: contemplate the divine nature of your friendships. While it is necessary and even useful to interact with society at large, it is among our closer friends that we find refuge, where we feel secure, where we come the closest to experiencing the imperishability of the gods. It is somewhat ironic that it is the possibility of being vulnerable with our friends that contributes to making us invulnerable. Epicurus, while addressing Metrodorus said: “I write this not for the many, but for you; each of us is enough of an audience for the other.”[5] Our friends bring us a feeling of confidence: “The same judgment produces confidence that dreadful things are not everlasting, and that security amidst the limited number of dreadful things is most easily achieved through friendship.”[6] Friends play a role similar to what a god would for many religious people. Just as they turn to a divine being in times of crisis, an Epicurean will turn to a friend.

Forth lesson: develop rituals with your friends. One way in which we can show our appreciation for a friend and celebrate a friendship is to come up with traditions you share exclusively with the person(s). As you get to know someone and spend time with them, you may find yourself repeating a very specific and semi-regular activity with that person. Perhaps you go to the same music festival every year, or go camping once a month, or some other special occasion. Perhaps you enjoy a certain drink socially, like yerba maté. Birthdays and anniversaries would be excuses for such rituals. Epicurus placed these celebrations of friendship as the center of his philosophical practice, as is made clear with the importance of Eikas, the monthly gathering every 20th of the month in honor of his relationship with Metrodorus, his closest friend.[7] This friendship, modeled on the gods, has strong symbolic value that has been celebrated for generations of Epicureans, and is a template of what a divine friendship should look like.

Notes:

[1] From Plutarch’s Against Colotes. Quote from http://www.attalus.org/translate/epicurus.html
[2] Philodemus, On Choices and Avoidances, published by Bibliopolis. See Hiram Crespo’s article https://societyofepicurus.com/reasonings-about-philodemus-on-choices-and-avoidances-part-i/
[3] Vatican Saying 23. Quote from https://monadnock.net/epicurus/vatican-sayings.html
[4] Vatican Saying 44. Quote from https://monadnock.net/epicurus/vatican-sayings.html
[5] Seneca, Letters to Lucilius. Quote from http://www.attalus.org/translate/epicurus.html
[6] Principle Doctrine 29. Quote from https://monadnock.net/epicurus/principal-doctrines.html
[7] See article from Hiram Crespo: https://societyofepicurus.com/eikas-and-ancestral-reverence/

Five contemplations on the gods: A path to community and friendship (part 3)

Continued from:

FIRST CONTEMPLATION: THE GODS

SECOND CONTEMPLATION: UTOPIA

THIRD CONTEMPLATION: THE SAGE

Quote: Wall inscription of Diogenes of Oinoanda, fragment 125 – 126 [1]

For when images of persons who are far away from our sight invade our mind, they cause the greatest disturbance. But if you examine the whole matter carefully, you will learn that the images of persons who are not present are of precisely the same kind as those of persons who are present. For although the images are perceived not by the senses, but by the mind, they have the same power, as far as in them lies, for persons who are present as when they existed with those other persons present also. Therefore, with regard to these matters, mother, be of good heart: do not reckon the visions of us to be bad; rather, when you see them, think of us daily acquiring something good and advancing further in happiness. For not small or ineffectual are these gains for us which make our disposition godlike and show that not even our mortality makes us inferior to the imperishable and blessed nature; for when we are alive, we are as joyful as the gods, knowing that death is nothing to us; and when we dead, we are without sensation… Think of us then, mother, as always joyful in the midst of such good things and show enthusiasm for what we are doing.

Commentary: the sage is equal to a god

These fragments of a letter to a mother, quoted in Diogenes’ wall inscription, are attributed to Epicurus[2]. In it he reassures his mother who fears for his safety because of visions of her son, probably in a dream, which she took to be a bad omen. As is implied in the letter, Epicurus reminds his mother Chaerestrate (who was a priestess) that interpreting dreams or visions of any kind as having any kind of prophetic value is superstition and that there is nothing to fear.

After reassuring his mother of the nature of these images, he recommends she turn these manifestations to her advantage and visualize positive things regarding her son. Here we see a common exercise in Epicureanism: “placing before the eyes”, a kind of visualization technique meant to help us achieve virtue and overcome vice[3] for the sake of living pleasantly.

In this case, Epicurus is making the claim that thanks to philosophy, his mother has nothing to worry about, for he has already achieved the best of all possible lives. Thanks to his wisdom, he has learned to be content with little, and does not need much to live a satisfying life. Thanks to his friends’ support, he feels safe in case he is lacking in basic needs.

Even if something bad was to happen and he was to die, he does not fear death. Death is the absence of sensation. There is no suffering in being dead. There is no punishment in the afterlife. Thanks to his gratitude for the good memories of his past, he is secure in having lived a good life. He says: “Misfortune must be cured through gratitude for what has been lost and the knowledge that it is impossible to change what has happened”[4]. One could retort that even if Epicurus’ mother could be reassured about the happiness of her son, she may still fear losing him and never seeing him again. We will address this later.

Practice: envision the life you want to live and try to make it reality

First lesson: envision the life of a sage. After the dwellings of the gods and utopia on Earth, we reach the third phase in our quest for godhood: the community of sages. We are now beyond mere thought experiments and are much closer to history with the existence of Epicurean communities that existed around the Mediterranean for over five centuries.

What is a sage? For all intents and purposes, sages are equal to gods, though to be fair, they are not quite at that level as they are somewhat more vulnerable, subject to misfortune and obviously, mortal. However, they are better prepared than most for misfortune, as Diogenes points out: “Chance can befall us and do harm, but rarely; for it does not have fuel, like fire, which it may lay hold of. So Epicurus, having regard to these matters, refused to remove chance from things entirely–for it would have been rash and incompatible with philosophical respectability to give a false account of a matter so clear and patently obvious to all–, but not a few occurrences he called only small. As then the disposition of the wise man can represent the accidental happening in this way, so, it seems, it seldom operates dominantly, as the son of Neocles (Epicurus) says: «It is seldom that chance impedes the wise man: it is reason which controls and controlled the greatest and most important matters »”[5]. Wisdom is the highest achievement possible for a human and being wise is our way to mirror the life of the blessed and immortal beings.

Second lesson: make yourself worthy in the eyes of a sage. The Stoic philosopher Seneca, in a letter to his friends Lucilius, quotes Epicurus: “We need to set our affections on some good man and keep him constantly before our eyes, so that we may live as if he were watching us and do everything as if he saw what we were doing”[6]. Aside from having some wise person to look up to, be it an Epicurean philosopher or some friend of family member we know and admire, we must try to become better ourselves, and improve our lives.

Third lesson: rethinking what it is you really desire. If what you desire is fame, wealth, power and the like, you will fail in your pursuits. Even if you succeed, you will still fail. Rethink what is important in your life. There are very few things we really need: food, shelter, health and a few moderate luxuries to give life some flavor. Some extravagant pleasures, if they are fortunate to come across our path, such as vacations to foreign countries or refined food for example, can be appreciated and add good memories we can appreciate in the future, though they are not necessary. Most importantly, whatever the experiences are, whether modest or extravagant, make sure you share them with loved ones.

Forth lesson: aim to live a complete life. In his treatise On Death, Philodemus expresses this best: “But the sensible man, having received that which can secure the whole of what is sufficient for a happy life, immediately then for the rest of his life goes about laid out for burial, and he profits by one day as he would by eternity, and when the day is being taken away, he neither considers the things happening to him surprising nor goes along with them as one falling somewhat short of the best life, but going forward and receiving in a remarkable manner the addition provided by time, as one who has met with a paradoxical piece of good luck, he is grateful to circumstances even for this”[7]. From a psychological perspective, Philodemus unveils to us how a human, mortal as he is, can match the immortality of the gods: “he profits by one day as he would by eternity”. However, this is no reason to neglect our finances, health, diet, etc. While ready to die at any moment, the sage expects to live a long life. A healthy life is another way to imitate the gods.

Notes:

[1] Quote from M. F. Smith’s work, The Epicurean Inscription. See https://www.english.enoanda.cat/the_inscription.html
[2] There is some disagreement amongst scholars on whether this quote is from Epicurus but we will tentatively accept this hypothesis in order to move forward. What matters here is this is an Epicurean quote.
[3] https://societyofepicurus.com/ethics-of-philodemus-moral-portraiture-and-seeing-before-the-eyes/
[4] Vatican Saying 55. From https://monadnock.net/epicurus/vatican-sayings.html
[5] https://www.english.enoanda.cat/the_inscription.html
[6] From Seneca, Letters to Lucilius. Quote from http://www.attalus.org/translate/epicurus.html
[7] Philodemus, On Death, published by Society of Biblical Literature. See Hiram Crespo’s article https://societyofepicurus.com/reasonings-about-philodemus-on-death/

Five contemplations on the gods: A path to community and friendship (part 2)

Continued from:
FIRST CONTEMPLATION: THE GODS

SECOND CONTEMPLATION: UTOPIA

Quote: Wall inscription of Diogenes of Oinoanda, fragment 56[1]

So we shall not achieve wisdom universally, since not all are capable of it. But if we assume it to be possible, then truly the life of the gods will pass to men. For everything will be full of justice and mutual love, and there will come to be no need of fortifications or laws and all the things which we contrive on account of one another. As for the necessities derived from agriculture, since we shall have no slaves at that time for indeed we ourselves shall plough and dig and tend the plants and divert rivers and watch over the crops…, and such activities, in accordance with what is needful, will interrupt the continuity of the shared study of philosophy; for the farming operations will provide what our nature wants.

Commentary: Human Society

This passage is from the wall inscription of Diogenes of Oinoanda, a 2nd century CE Epicurean philanthropist and philosopher from Anatolia (today called Turkey). It imagines a utopian society where humankind as a whole achieves Epicurean wisdom. Before we continue, keep in mind that this is yet another thought experiment, not a political project. While what we see here resembles a kind of libertarian socialist utopia, in reality Epicureans were very much in favor of institutions like the state with its laws, police, regulations, etc. This utopian vision of a society with “no need of fortifications or laws” could only exist if everyone became wise, but Diogenes of Oinoanda starts by specifying that “we shall not achieve wisdom universally”. So why imagine such a society at all? What is the point of this thought experiment?

Yet again, we see the reference to divinity when he says that such a utopian society would be the reflection on earth of the society of the gods that live outside of our world. This is what would happen if humanity imitated the peaceful dispositions of the gods. We would seek to achieve wisdom and happiness instead of constantly engaging in conflict and war for such vain desires such as greed, wealth, lust, fame and all the other vices. Instead we would be “full of justice and mutual love”. Since we lack the invulnerability of the gods, we would work together to achieve universal wellbeing with activities such as farming and irrigation. Also of notice is that this society has no slaves and a kind of work/life balance exists, alternating labor and philosophy.

Expressions such as “what is needful” and “what our nature wants” indicate that people would be focused on what is important in life, not what is superfluous. Gone are the expensive yachts, five star hotels and ostentatious mansions of billionaires. Humanity would live comfortably, but modestly. In short, we would be mostly self-sufficient, needing very little. This is another way to imitate the gods, who are entirely self-sufficient.

All of this seems like wishful thinking doesn’t it? And historically, attempts to create utopian societies such as these have led to disaster. And yet, when we think about what has been achieved, such as the existence of weekends, paid vacation, minimum wage, universal education, we realize that we are in a much better place than ever thought imaginable to an ancient philosopher. If you had mentioned a concept such as the abolition of slavery in ancient Greece and Rome, you would have been laughed out of the room. Many horrors still exist in today’s world and many more are to come. However, by imagining utopia, we imagine what our lives could be like, and we take steps to make them better.

Practice: Live Justly

First lesson: be harmless. Remember the function of the gods as role models. Philodemus, a 1st century BCE Epicurean philosopher says: “Those who believe our oracles about the gods will first wish to imitate their blessedness in so far as mortals can, so that, since it was seen to come from doing no harm to anyone, they will endeavor most of all to make themselves harmless to everyone as far as is within their power”[2]. Epicureans do not live isolated from society and adhere to the social contract. But also, we do not behave like tyrants, imposing our ways on other people who are different from us. This inevitably leads to the politics of tolerance, a policy of “live and let live”. Another associated principle would be: “my freedom ends where another person’s freedom begins”. While this all may seem like common sense, there are many influential and powerful political movements that oppose these very basic principles.

Second lesson: favor peace over war. Epicureans believed that war is only justified in self-defense. Keep in mind that more often than not, wars of aggression come with propaganda claiming that the act of aggression was in fact provoked and political leaders will not hesitate to lie to claim that an offensive war is in fact an act of defense. Epicureans are well aware of the dirty and corrupt nature of politics. We must always be skeptical and on our guard.

Third lesson: consider the wellbeing of your community. Epicureans are not selfish and believe in collective wellbeing. While part of this is based on enlightened self interest, Diogenes also uses the term “mutual love”. Other Epicurean sources insist on philanthropy. In fact, if we are to follow Diogenes, we must show concern not just for our tribe or nation, but to all humankind: “For, while the various segments of the earth give different people a different country, the whole compass of this world gives all people a single country, the entire earth, and a single home, the world”[3].

Forth lesson: decide how involved you want to be in political affairs. The expression lathe biosas (often translated as “live unnoticed”) is often attributed to Epicurus, who is reputed to have avoided getting involved in the political disputes of his time. The reality, as is often the case in Epicurean philosophy, is much more complex. There are many recorded Epicureans in history who were politically engaged in some form or another. Long story short, not getting involved in politics is what is preferred, but circumstances might lead one to act differently. It is important to keep in mind that there are different degrees of political participation. Some of us may be content to vote in elections, which involves minimal effort and trouble, to more active forms of participation, such as activism, running for office or occupying positions of power. In the face of tyranny, other forms of action can be considered, such as civil disobedience, or in extreme cases, armed struggle.

Notes:

[1] https://www.english.enoanda.cat/the_inscription.html
[2] Quote from The Polytheism of the Epicureans by Dr Paul Terence Matthias Jackson. To learn more about Epicureans theology: https://www.academia.edu/36564126/The_Polytheism_of_the_Epicureans
[3] https://www.english.enoanda.cat/the_inscription.html

Five contemplations on the gods: A path to community and friendship (part 1)

The following is as five-essay collection of contemplations on the gods by SoFE member Marcus. Although we have made many efforts to clarify aspects of Epicurean cosmology, the ancient Epicurean conception of gods as cosmic beings who have physical bodies remains difficult for many students to understand. Epicurean theology falls more within the realm of astrobiology speculation and sci-fi, than within the realm of theology which (today) has become almost entirely Platonized. Marcus wrote these five contemplations to help us place the gods before our eyes, and to derive their intended ethical utility even if we are non-theistic. – Hiram Crespo

Educational Video: On the Epicurean Gods

Epicurus concludes his Letter to Menoeceus, the summary of his teachings on the happy life, as follows: “So practice these and similar things day and night, by yourself and with a like-minded friend, and you will never be disturbed whether waking or sleeping, and you will live as a god among men: for a man who lives in the midst of immortal goods is unlike a merely mortal being.”[1]

This is not the only passage in Epicurean literature where the idea of living wisely is compared to living as a god. Also notice that this passage places importance in practicing philosophy “with a like-minded friend”. As we shall see, these two ideas, living as a god among men and philosophizing with a like-minded friend, are not only very closely related but they represent the very core and highest realization of the entire Epicurean philosophical endeavor.

It shall be made clear that the recurring theme of becoming like a god is not hyperbolic or poetic, it is quite literal. To understand this, it will be necessary to think outside the box, outside the contours of monotheistic religions like Christianity or Islam. Epicurus defined a god as a “blissful and immortal being”[2]. This is nothing new or innovative on Epicurus’ part. These are very much the gods of Homer and Hesiod. For example, in his Theogony, Hesiod refers to “the blessed gods that are eternally”. Many of the other philosophical schools of this time, those of Plato, Aristotle or the Stoics for example, would have agreed with this definition. Where the Epicureans and the other philosophical schools disagreed with Homer and Hesiod is their characterization of the gods as being subject to petty human weaknesses such as jealousy, adultery, anger, cruelty, and so on. The god of a philosopher must represent reason, virtue and wisdom. As a result, these different philosophers agree that to become wise is to become like the gods.[3]

But getting back to the Epicureans… Unlike most other philosophical schools of their day, they believed that the gods do not intervene in human affairs or the workings of the universe. They do not punish or reward humans. So, rivals to Epicurus could – and did – ask: why care about these gods at all if they do not interfere with our lives? Why did Epicurus venerate these gods who are not concerned with us? Why did he encourage his followers to pray, worship statues of the gods, take part in religious festivals and mystery initiations? Long story short, the Epicurean gods serve as role models for the philosopher. What does this mean practically? This is what we will investigate.

Before we start exploring this conception of divinity and how it leads to the Epicurean ideal of friendship, we should clarify a few things: the object of this article is not to defend the existence of the Epicurean gods, for which there is obviously no evidence, nor point out any potential inconsistencies in their arguments concerning the gods.[4] In order to move forward, we can simply think of these gods as part of an ethical thought experiment that will lead to practical results on how we think about and experience our lives and our relationships.[5]

We will do this by examining five “contemplations” on divinity taken directly from Epicurean literature. Each quote will be followed by a commentary based on the evidence left to us by the Epicurean writings and suggested philosophical exercises on how to put these theories into practice in our daily lives.

This essay will be divided into 5 parts, each part dedicated to one of the contemplations:

FIRST CONTEMPLATION: THE GODS

SECOND CONTEMPLATION: UTOPIA

THIRD CONTEMPLATION: THE SAGE

FORTH CONTEMPLATION: THE FRIEND

FIFTH CONTEMPLATION: THE DEPARTED

Today we begin with the gods.

FIRST CONTEMPLATION: THE GODS

Quote: From On the Nature of Things, book 3, by Lucretius[6]

I see what is going on in all the void,
the majesty and calm habitations
of the gods reveal themselves in places
where no winds disturb, no clouds bring showers,
no white snow falls, congealed with bitter frost,
to harm them, the always cloudless aether
vaults above, and they smile, as far and wide
the light spreads out. Then, too, nature provides
plentiful supplies of all things—their peace
is not disturbed by anything at any time.

Commentary: the society of the gods

This passage from the 1st century BCE Roman philosopher-poet Lucretius is part of a eulogy to Epicurus included in his epic poem, De Rerum Natura, a presentation of Epicurean philosophy in verse. We can see that much emphasis is placed on the habitat in which these peacefully minded gods live, a calm pleasant environment not subject to the destructive forces of the universe.[7]

The Epicureans give us a number of arguments defending the existence of these gods that may seem debatable to a modern audience, but let’s indulge these ancient philosophers from two millennia ago for a bit (also, let’s not get lost in the complex details of ancient theories in physics).[8] To keep a very long and complicated story short, using contemporary terminology, we can think of the Epicurean gods as a kind of privileged extraterrestrial species living far outside of our world, somewhere within an infinite multiverse[9]. In other words, humans are not at the summit of creation. This is an important point, because the Epicureans are trying to imagine the best, most pleasant life possible in all of what exists, and what we can learn from it.[10]

According to this philosophy, divinity is thought of in biological, not supernatural, categories[11]. Philodemus makes this clear in On the Gods: “These demonstrate that every nature has a different location suitable to it. To some it is water, to others air and earth. In one case for animals in another for plants and the like. But especially for the gods there has to be a suitable location, due to the fact that, while all the others have their permanence for a certain time only, the gods have it for eternity.”[12]

But how should we imagine these beings? What are they like? In his Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus gives us the foundational principles needed to conceptualize the gods: “First, believe that god is a blissful, immortal being, as is commonly held. Do not ascribe to god anything that is inconsistent with immortality and blissfulness; instead, believe about god everything that can support immortality and blissfulness.”[13]

Beyond these two basic principles, blissfulness and immortality, Epicurus seems to be giving his followers license to fill in the gaps with all sorts of speculations. Epicurus wants us to represent the gods before our eyes, be it the mind’s eye, using our imagination, or our actual eyes, through statues, paintings, religious rituals and so on.

This is important for two reasons: first we must free ourselves from any fear that the gods might be a source of harm to humans. These gods will not punish us in our lives or the afterlife. Such petty actions would contradict their blissfulness and immortality. They are too far outside our world and too peaceful for that. The gods are to be admired, not feared. The second reason is that the gods are ethical ideals, role models to be imitated. How do we become more like the gods here on Earth? What can we do to try to match their supreme happiness? This is one reason the gods are represented as human looking: we are supposed to identify with them. They are just like us, only better. Let’s contemplate how we can become better…

Practice: deconstruct false conceptions of the gods

First lesson: change how we think of the divine. Do away with what has been taught to us by monotheistic religions, the notion of a single god that is all knowing, all powerful, being responsible for creating the universe and benevolent towards humans. Instead, think of the god as a supremely happy biological entity existing within our universe, not above it. Do not be afraid to represent them as humanoid. We are supposed to identify with them. Remember, this is a thought experiment. Forget about the fanatical impulse taught to us by monotheists to “smash the idols!” Do the opposite instead: build idols!

Second lesson: let’s imagine ourselves as living amongst the gods. Let’s make this fun! Imagine, for whatever reason, due to some amazing, ridiculously improbable coincidence, that these gods happen to look a lot like the characters from Greek mythology. They have the same names too! Imagine that you no longer have back pain, don’t have to wake up early on Monday to go to work and get yelled at by your tyrannical boss, get stuck in traffic, fill out your taxes… Now imagine yourself playing music with Apollo, discussing philosophy with Athena, observing the stars with Zeus, arm wrestling with Ares, playing poker with Hermes, partying with Dionysus, hiking with Pan, caressing the body of Aphrodite (or if you prefer, Eros)…

Third lesson: picture multiple gods. The second lesson had us interacting with the gods, the key word here being “interacting”. After all, we lack the invulnerability of the gods. We have weak bodies that get sick and old, have back pain… And of course, we have to deal with bad bosses, traffic, taxes and all the other “perks” of living among humans. We cannot avoid these things. But when we contemplate the perfect life of the gods, we see them living in communities, enjoying each other’s company, building friendships. This is within our grasp. Thinking about the gods is imagining the best of all possible lives. And that divine happiness has a word: friendship. And now we see why monotheism doesn’t work in this philosophy. A solitary god is no model for us. Gods are social animals.

Fourth lesson: view the gods as embodiments of happiness. Diogenes of Oinoanda, says: “Some statues of gods shoot arrows and are produced holding a bow, represented like Heracles in Homer; others are attended by a body-guard of wild beasts; others are angry with the prosperous, like Nemesis according to popular opinion; whereas we ought to make statues of the gods genial and smiling, so that we may smile back at them rather than be afraid of them.”[14]

Notes:

[1] Translated by Peter Saint-Andre: https://monadnock.net/epicurus/letter.html
[2] Also in the Letter to Menoeceus: https://monadnock.net/epicurus/letter.html
[3] For more on the complex relation between Greek philosophy and religion: https://www.academia.edu/4990433/Greek_Philosophy_and_Religion
[4] It should be noted that within scholarship, there are two interpretations of the Epicurean gods: realist an idealist. According to scholar David Sedley, : “Epicurean theology has come to be viewed as a battleground between two parties of interpreters, the realists and the idealists. Realists take Epicurus to have regarded the gods as biologically immortal beings […] idealists take Epicurus’ idea to have been, rather, that gods are our own graphic idealization of the life to which we aspire.” We consider that the textual evidence overwhelmingly favors the realist interpretation. In order to get a good understanding of Epicurus’ theology, we recommend the following article: The Polytheism of the Epicureans by Paul T M Jackson: https://www.academia.edu/36564126/The_Polytheism_of_the_Epicureans
[5] While we believe the realist interpretation of the gods is what Epicurus intended, this article takes the position the idealist interpretation is more useful to us today as part of an Epicurean revival for the 21st century. It is worth mentioning that many modern Epicurean practitioners prefer to call this the “non-realist” rather that “idealist” interpretation, but both mean the same thing.
[6] Translated by Ian Johnston: http://johnstoniatexts.x10host.com/lucretius/lucretius3html.html
[7] It is important to keep in mind that Epicurean theology is intertwined with Epicurean cosmology. The gods did not create the universe but are a part o it and subject to its laws.
[8] To get a sense of Epicurean reasoning on the gods, one argument they put forth is that in an infinite universe with infinite possibilities, the existence of such beings is inevitable.
[9] According to Epicurus and his followers, our cosmos is but one of an infinite amount of world systems.
[10] To live within a cosmos is to be subject to the same forces of destruction that end up destroying that cosmos. Nothing lasts forever and all life must end. There is no eternal soul, no afterlife. The gods seem to escape this fate because they live in the metakosmia—in other words, in the spaces in between different cosmoi.
[11] As physical beings, the gods lose atoms over time but they are able to replenish all the atoms that they lose with new ones. Also, the gods have intelligence and wisdom, which allows them to actively preserve their bodies and mind.
[12] Quote from Space and Movement in Philodemus’ De dis 3: an Anti-Aristotelian Account by Holger Essler. https://www.academia.edu/26142444/Space_and_Movement_in_Philodemus_De_dis_3_an_Anti_Aristotelian_Account
[13] https://monadnock.net/epicurus/letter.html
[14] Quote from M. F. Smith’s work, The Epicurean Inscription. See https://www.english.enoanda.cat/the_inscription.html

Epicurus and his Followers

“You toil, men, at worthless tasks, and in your greed
For gain you start quarrels and wars:
But nature’s wealth has its limits,
Though empty judgment treads a limitless path.
So heard the wise son of Neocles, either from the Muses,
Or from the holy tripod of Pytho”
— Athenaeus

Epicurus’ early life

Epicurus, son of Neocles, was born in 341 BC in an Athenian settlement on the island of Samos, in the Aegean Sea. One ancient biography mentions that he was of aristocratic birth although it is also stated that his father was a school teacher, a modest profession. He started practicing philosophy at an early age, either 12 or 14. According to one source, he turned to philosophy because of his dissatisfaction with the origin myths presented in Hesiod. Epicurus had three brothers, Neocles, Chaeredemus and Aristobulus, with whom he was close, and encouraged them to join him in the practice of philosophy.

The period in which he lived was a time of major change in the Greek world, with the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s conquests. Alexander’s death led to a major succession crisis where power hungry military leaders competed for control through political maneuvering and warfare. As a result of the chaos, Epicurus had to leave Samos and ended up living in Colophon, off the Ionian coast (today Turkey), after completing his military service.

Epicurus recruits his disciples

After sustaining himself financially for some time as a school teacher, his father’s profession, and studying philosophy with different teachers, he opened his first philosophical school in Mytilene, in the island of Lesbos, at the age of 32. It is there that he would make his first major encounter, that of Hermarchus, the son of a poor man and originally a student of rhetoric. Hermarchus would become an important figure in the Epicurean school and eventually Epicurus’ successor.

Epicurus later moved to Lampsacus, in the Hellespont (today called the Dardanelles, in Turkey) where he became very successful and met someone else who would play an important role in his life: Metrodurus–sometimes referred to as a “second Epicurus”–who could be considered as Epicurus’ best friend. He would have wanted Metrodorus to be his successor but he died before Epicurus, who took care of his surviving children. The traditional celebration of the Eikas feast on the 20th of each month is dedicated to both Epicurus and Metrodurus who together embody the values of friendship, autarchy, etc.

Another important encounter at Lampsacus was that of the mathematician Polyaenus, who was known for his friendliness to everyone, including philosophical rivals. Together, Epicurus, Metrodorus, Hermarchus and Polyaenus are considered the 4 founders of the Epicurean school and their writings were considered canonical by later Epicureans. While Epicurus, the head of the school, was referred to as the Hegemon, Metrodorus, Hermarchus and Polyaenus were the kathegemones (Leaders, or Guides).

Other important individuals from Lampsacus to join the school were Idomeneus, Leonteus and his wife Themista, Colotes and Metrodurus’ brother, Timocrates, and sister, Batis. Idomeneus became one of the important leaders of the school. Born in a rich aristocratic family, he was heavily involved in politics; though it seems he eventually abandoned that career to dedicate himself more fully to philosophy. He married Metrodurus’ sister, Batis. Eventually, Epicurus and many of his followers moved near Athens to found the philosophical school that would be known as the Garden. Idomeneus, along with Leonteus, stayed behind in Lampsacus to lead the Epicurean school there. Over time, Epicurean communities would multiply around the Mediterranean world.

The Garden was known for accepting women amongst its ranks as intellectual equals. Other than Themista, another important female member was Leontion, who was either Metrodorus’ wife or mistress. She might have been a hetaera, a term often translated as “courtesan”, though what exactly this means is unclear, and the term might have been used in a derogatory manner to criticize an educated woman with more freedom than was considered normal for the time. We know of at least one treatise that she wrote. Other women who joined the Garden were Mammarion, Hedia, Erotion and Nicidion, who might also have been hetaerae.

Slaves also practiced philosophy with Epicurus, the most famous of whom was Mys, Epicurus’ servant. Two centuries later, Philodemus would still be telling many stories of how kind Epicurus was to his slave Mys (“Mouse”), whom he manumitted in his Final Will, and who seems to have been treated perhaps as a type of adopted son by Epicurus. Therefore, we might imagine Mys (sometimes spelled Mus, and pronounced like “Muse”) as a much more important and dignified figure than we may expect from his social status: he was a trusted and available hand, was always treated respectfully and kindly by the Hegemon, and may have been the one in charge of ensuring service and hospitality to guests at the Garden (as reported by Seneca), or in charge of managing the kitchen.

Epicurus’ character

One member would end up dissenting from the Garden, Timocrates the brother of Metrodorus. This led to a public back and forth between Timocrates and Metrodurus, who remained faithful to Epicurus. The reason for Timocrates’ departure is not clear, but his dissention would lead to the spread of rumors which would seriously hurt the reputation of Epicurean community. The tradition of anti-Epicurean slander would continue over the centuries, including the publication of scandalous letters falsely attributed to Epicurus. Regarding the rumors, it should be noted that the rivalry between philosophical schools in those times were just as petty as polemics between politicians or celebrities are today.

According to the ancient biographer Diogenes Laertius, those spreading rumors about Epicurus and his friends were “out of their minds”, and he praises Epicurus for “his gratitude to his parents, his generosity to his brothers, his gentleness to his servants” as well as his “piety towards the gods and devotion to his native land”. He adds: “For it was on account of his exceptional honesty that he did not engage in public life at all”. Even Epicurus’ rivals recognized that he was loyal to his friends and practiced moderation, and Plutarch–who more than once mocked the affection that the Epicurean Friends had for each other–elsewhere admitted admiration (perhaps envy?) for having been such loyal, caring Friends to each other. Epicurus rarely left his homeland even in times of war and one time used food rations to keep the members of his school from starving during a siege. He is said to have been content with eating just bread and water and adding a little bit of cheese was considered a luxury which he enjoyed. Epicurus and his friends took care of each other when they were sick and honored those who died.

Epicurus died in 270 BC from stone blockage of his urinary tract. It was a slow and painful death but according to the tradition Epicurus remained cheerful due to the good memories of his life with his friends. According to his deathbed letter to Idomeneus:

“Passing a delightful day, which will also be the last of my life, I write you this note. Dysentery and an inability to urinate have occasioned the worst possible sufferings. But the counterweight to all this is the joy in my heart when I remember our conversations. I beseech you, in light of how admirably, from childhood, you have stood by me and by philosophy, to keep watch over Metrodorus’ children”.

Life in Epicurean Communities

“Epicurus, however, in a single household, and one of slender means at that, maintained a whole host of friends, united by a wonderful bond of affection. And this is still a feature of present day Epicureanism.” From Cicero’s On Ends

Epicurus and the Founders

Epicurus was born in an Athenian settlement in the island of Samos in the late 4th century BC. One ancient biography mentions he was of noble birth although it is also stated that he started out sustaining himself financially as a school teacher, which would indicate that he was of modest means in his early life. He started practicing philosophy at an early age, either 12 or 14, depending on the source. He and his family ended up leaving Samos and moving to different cities as a result of the chaos in the Greek world that followed the death of Alexander the Great. During his travels he would study philosophy under different teachers and would eventually build his own philosophical system inspired by the long dead founder of atomism, Democritus. Epicurus promoted the following worldview: the universe is made of atoms and void and subject to the laws of physics without divine intervention, the world can be understood through an empiricist epistemology, and pleasure, pursued intelligently and ethically, is the goal of life.

His first converts were of his own family: his three brothers and a slave named Mys. During his travels, he met other men who would play an enormous role in his life, most notably Metrodurus, Hermarchus and Polyaenus. Together, this group of friends would create the philosophical school that would become known as the Garden. Unlike what is often assumed, Epicurean philosophy is not just the work of a single man. While Epicurus was the founder of the school that bears his name, the writings of these co-founders would be considered foundational by Epicureans throughout the centuries.

By the time Epicurus with his friends settled in Athens, he had a strong enough network to start competing with the other major philosophical schools of Plato and Aristotle. As the Epicureans gained converts and financial support, they were able to purchase property, a garden, in the outskirts of Athens where the community would be able to live and practice their philosophy. This is where the name of the Epicurean school, the Garden, comes from.

Who Were the Epicureans?

The Garden welcomed people from all walks of life. Unlike other philosophers of the time, Epicurus encouraged the practice of philosophy at any age:

“Let no one delay the study of philosophy while young nor weary of it when old. For no one is either too young or too old for the health of the soul”

One major feature of the Garden was its acceptance of marginalized people. In the Epicurean community, slaves practiced philosophy along with legally free men. The ancient biographer Diogenes Laertius mentions Epicurus’ kindness toward his own slaves in his Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, and informs us that they studied philosophy with him.

It should be noted that in antiquity there was no concept of abolishing slavery. It was considered an inevitable part of a functioning economy, much like wage labor is today. However, within this context, the Epicureans were among those who most strongly called for slaves to be treated humanely. The doxography on the Epicurean wise man in Diogenes Laertius’ biography states the following:

“Nor will he punish his servants; instead he will pity them and pardon any who are of good character.”

Women were also accepted in the community and discussed philosophy along with men. This was unusual for this period where women enjoyed few rights. Among the Epicureans one could find married couples as well as a class of women called hetaerae. These hetaerae, a term often translated as “courtesans”, were considered in ancient Athens to be in a different category than married women or prostitutes. They enjoyed much more freedom in their interpersonal relationships than the average Greek married woman, who was subject to the extremely restrictive societal norms of the time. However, they were financially dependent on male providers, who often competed for their attention. They also tended to be well read and knowledgeable in subjects such as poetry, art or philosophy. One of them, Leontion, is known to have written a treatise defending Epicureanism. The relative freedom of women in the Garden was considered scandalous by traditionally minded intellectual elites. The Roman politician and writer Cicero expressed a mixture of admiration and shock at Leontion’s practice of philosophy:

“…even the courtesan Leontion ventured to write against Theophrastus? She did so, it is true, in a neat and Attic style, but still—. Such was the license assumed by the Garden of Epicurus…”

Epicurean communities had an open door policy and did not only welcome converts. According to the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus it was a common practice to welcome non members to their banquets.

By the time it reached Rome, Epicureanism became a strong presence among certain sectors of the Patricians, the Roman elites. However, the philosophy seems to have also become popular among the not so elite Plebeian classes if we are to believe the aristocratically minded Cicero who mocks the philosophy for appealing to what in his mind were the uneducated common people.

Moral Improvement

How did a convert to Epicureanism practice philosophy in the Garden? One important facet of being an Epicurean was learning the teachings of the school. What is the nature of the cosmos? How do we obtain reliable knowledge? What is the best way of life as a human being? These teachings were not just about learning philosophical theory for its own sake. Understanding the universe we live in and human nature was crucial to flourishing and living better lives. For example, learning that natural phenomena such as thunder and earthquakes have rational explanations is meant to protect us from fears caused by superstitions. Learning that we do not need to be rich or famous to be happy helps us overcome the longing for those unnecessary things which are out of our reach and be content with what we have. To this end, study and memorization were techniques used to better integrate these teachings.

Another major objective of a student in Epicureanism was to become a more ethical and wiser person by cultivating virtues and overcoming vices. Much of the Epicurean literature focused on describing negative personality traits and developing therapeutic methods to overcome them. For example, among the surviving scrolls of Philodemus, we find titles such as On Anger, On Flattery and On Arrogance. This literature presents us with philosophical arguments as well as vivid images of people subject to these emotions, often considered irrational and harmful, in order to persuade readers to work on morally improving themselves.

This aim of achieving wisdom was also achieved by interacting with other members of the community in a practice called Frank Speech. Epicureans were expected to help each other in overcoming personality flaws and becoming better people. This encouraged not only a form of truth telling meant to improve one another’s behavior, but the admission of one’s own flaws in a way that reminds us of Catholic confession. The bonds of friendship encouraged in the Garden required trust and honesty while giving out criticism or praise. This was a difficult balancing act. For example, the two extremes of arrogance and a lack of self-confidence were to be overcome. One had to be careful to express honest criticism without being mean spirited. It was also important to take into account everyone’s unique personality. For instance, you will not talk to someone who is of gentle disposition in the same way you would someone who has a more aggressive personality. Philodemus elaborates on questions such as these in his treatise, On Frank Speech.

Within the Epicurean communities there was a hierarchy between teachers, more advanced in wisdom, and students in philosophy. This hierarchy was not based on social class, which sometimes led to tensions when the student was of a higher social status than the teacher. A teacher was seen as a sort of doctor of the soul whose role it was to cure students and occasionally other teachers of their vices by mastering different techniques of Frank Speech. This required experience and a capacity to lead by example and inspire trust, as such a position was never a given and had to be earned. This also necessitated, on occasion, the recognition of one’s own faults and shortcomings, as even the sage is still human.

Feasts and Friendship

Epicureans had a strong sense of community and for them this was absolutely central to living a good life. The Garden was not just a place for serious philosophical meditation and moral self improvement. It was also a community that encouraged its followers to enjoy life and find comfort in friendship. The welcoming nature of the Garden was exemplified by the motto inscribed at its entrance. The Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca describes what it is like to be welcomed there:

“When you arrive to Epicurus’ Garden and see what is written there – HERE, GUEST, WILL YOU BE ENTERTAINED: HERE PLEASURE IS THE HIGHEST GOOD – then the keeper of the house will be ready to receive you and, being hospitable and kind, will serve you a plate of porridge and a generous goblet of water and say to you ‘Is this not a fine welcome?’ ‘These gardens,’ he will say, ‘do not stimulate appetite; they appease it. They do not give drinks that make one thirstier, but quench thirst with its natural remedy, which comes free of charge. This is the pleasure in which I have lived to old age’”

This quote emphasizes the spirit of moderation and contentment within the community. This is not to say that luxury was excluded from the good life; rather that it is something that we must learn to live without and is to be appreciated on occasion. As Epicurus writes in his Letter to Menoeceus:

“Therefore, becoming accustomed to simple, not extravagant, ways of life makes one completely healthy, makes man unhesitant in the face of life’s necessary duties, puts us in a better condition for times of extravagance which occasionally come along, and makes us fearless in the face of chance”

It was an Epicurean tradition to organize feasts and celebrations meant to strengthen the bonds of friendship, the most famous of which is the celebration of the 20th of the month in honor of Epicurus and his close friend and co-founder of the Garden, Metrodorus. This feast and others like it were occasions for celebration and the expression of the sense of brotherhood that existed within the different Garden communities that had spread across the Mediterranean. Seneca quotes Epicurus:

“Look to your dinner companions rather than your dinner, for feeding without a friend is the life of a lion or a wolf”

The different celebrations commemorating the founders of the Epicurean school and members of the early community could be considered of religious significance. A hero worship of a sacred nature became an institutionalized practice among members of the Garden, not unlike the worship of religious founders such as Jesus or the Buddha. In a sense, Epicureans aspired to godhood, not literally becoming immortal after death, as was the belief of some ancient Greek and Roman Mystery religions, but by aspiring to match the wisdom and happiness of the Gods in this lifetime to the degree that is possible in our mortal condition. For this reason, the gods, who according to the teachings of the school were wise and happy beings devoid of the cruelty and destructive passions portrayed in the myths, were worshipped as role models. Epicurus encouraged the worship of the gods not only in the private setting of the Epicurean community, but also in the public sphere. Philodemus quotes Epicurus in his treatise On Piety:

“Again: ‘let us sacrifice to the gods’, he says, ‘piously and well, as is appropriate, and let us do everything well according to the laws, but let us do so not disturbing them at all with our opinions on the topic of those who are best and most majestic’”

Other than the founders of the school and the gods, friendship itself could be considered an object of worship within the Garden. Epicurus referred to friendship as an immortal good and the expression of feelings towards friends could sometimes resemble the deference one might show to a divinity. Epicurus describes a mutual display of affection in one of his letters to his disciple Colotes:

“For as if you had adored what we were then saying, you were suddenly taken with a desire, proceeding not from any natural cause, to come to us, prostrate yourself on the ground, embrace our knees, and use all those gestures to us which are ordinarily practiced by those who adore and pray to the Gods. So that you made us also, reciprocally sanctify and adore you.”

Friendship was celebrated both in life and in death. The passing of a friend was an occasion for mourning and grief but also for festivities and celebration of the deceased person’s memory. Epicurus, in the following quote, encourages us to be grateful towards those who impacted our lives and are no longer with us :

“Sweet is the memory of a dead friend.”

A Community of Support

More than a space where people could get together to practice philosophy, cultivate virtue and celebrate life, the Garden was there to help its members in times of need. Epicureans took friendship seriously and could count on each other for support in a hostile world. Those suffering from illness were cared for. On one occasion, while Athens was subject to starvation caused by siege warfare, the Garden assured the well being of its members. According to the ancient historian Plutarch:

“At this time also, we are told, the philosopher Epicurus sustained the lives of his associates with beans, which he counted out and distributed among them.”

Support could also be political. According to Plutarch, Metrodorus once travelled far to advocate for the safety of a friend who had been arrested while serving as a courtier. It should be noted that in general, it was recommended that the followers of Epicurus avoid politics. However, this recommendation was not a prohibition and circumstances could lead one to pursue a political career. Philodemus wrote a treatise titled On the Good King According to Homer, to Piso, his Roman patron and father-in-law of Julius Caesar, where he gives advice on how to be a good ruler. It was not unheard of for Epicureans to hold positions in politics, though this was the exception rather than the rule.

The central role played by friendship in Epicurus’ philosophy also had an economic element. Epicureans with access to financial means were expected to look out for their friends in need, and be generous with their wealth and cultivate a spirit of philanthropy. In his treatise On Property Management, Philodemus lays out what kind of attitude a philosopher should have towards wealth. Regarding one’s personal finances, a wise man should reject both the extremes of asceticism and greed. He must be neither a beggar nor a miser. It is important to secure your own long-term financial security but beyond that have a detached attitude towards wealth. Epicurus sums up this attitude in one of his Vatican Sayings:

“It is impious to love money unjustly, and shameful to do so justly; for it is unfitting to be sordidly stingy even if one is just”

Rather than save excessive riches beyond one’s needs, an Epicurean should share his wealth with his friends, even after his death in the form of inheritance if he is without children. If he finds himself in financial difficulties, he will make sure that any cuts in his expenses will affect him rather than his friends. Epicurus expresses this approach in another Vatican Saying:

“When the wise man is brought face to face with the necessities of life, he knows how to give rather than receive – such a treasure of self-sufficiency has he found.”

Of course one had to be careful with all sorts of opportunists, flatterers and parasites who would feign friendship in order to take advantage of someone’s generosity. Philodemus wrote a work called On Flattery dealing with this subject.

In regards to what are the best sources of income for an Epicurean philosopher, this comes in the form of gifts in compensation for teaching philosophy. It should be noted however, that he will not sell his ideas and ask for money, but rather accept tokens of gratitude from those who appreciate him. There are other acceptable sources of income, but the most inhumane ones, such as warfare or prostitution, are excluded. In an unfortunate passage however, Philodemus does justify slavery arguing that manual labor is not fitting for a philosopher. While we should remember that Philodemus’ target audience were members of the Roman ruling elites such as his patron Piso and that he does call for the humane treatment of slaves in other passages, this is a troubling statement.

Not all Epicureans, however, were opposed to manual labor as part of a philosophical life. Diogenes of Oinoanda imagines a utopian society in which everyone adopts Epicurean values:

“But if we assume it to be possible, then truly the life of the gods will pass to men. For everything will be full of justice and mutual love, and there will come to be no need of fortifications or laws and all the things which we contrive on account of one another. As for the necessities derived from agriculture, since we shall have no slaves at that time (for indeed [we ourselves shall plough] and dig and tend [the plants] and [divert] rivers and watch over [the crops) (…) such activities, [in accordance with what is] needful, will interrupt the continuity of the [shared] study of philosophy; for [the] farming operations [will provide what our] nature wants.”

Spreading the Epicurean Gospel

Already during the lifetime of Epicurus, the Athenian Garden was not the only Epicurean community to exist and its members were constantly in contact with each other. Throughout the centuries, Epicurean communities appeared in the three continents surrounding the Mediterranean and later became, along with Stoicism, one of the main philosophies adopted within the Roman Empire.

They used multiple methods to spread their ideas. In an era where no printing technology existed, the only method to preserve the teachings of the school, other than memorization, was copying Epicurean treatises by hand. A surviving papyrus written by the Epicurean Demetrius Lacon informs us of techniques used to avoid errors while copying treatises which could lead to distortions in the understanding of essential doctrines.

Another method used to spread the ideas of the Garden was to write short summaries of the key doctrines in the form of letters and collections of maxims in order to make them accessible to those whose lives were too busy to read the longer writings of the school. It also served as memory-aids to help remember essential teachings.

Travelling and networking with powerful people to gain support among the elites was another approach. For example, Philodemus moved to Italy and befriended Piso. This led to a patron-client relationship which helped establish an Epicurean community in Naples and supported the Epicurean library in Herculaneum which housed many papyrus scrolls, some of which have been partially preserved until this day.

Philodemus and other Epicureans in Italy started writing texts intended for a Roman audience and adapted to this new cultural context. For example, the first philosophical treatises written in Latin were from the Epicureans Amafinius and Rabririus. However, the most successful of them all was the epic poem written by Lucretius. Lucretius explains why he thought poetry was a good way to spread these ideas:

“Since this philosophy of ours often appears somewhat off-putting to those who have not experienced it, and most people recoil back from it, I have preferred to expound it to you in harmonious Pierian poetry and, so to speak, coat it with sweet honey from the Muses.”

Another way to publicize the Garden was visually, for example with statues of the founders. A character in one of Cicero’s dialogues states the following in regards to Epicurean memorabilia:

“Still, I could hardly forget Epicurus, even if I wanted to. The members of our Epicurean family have his likeness not only in paintings, but even engraved on their cups and rings.”

Of all the Ancient Mediterranean philosophical schools, the Garden is the one that left behind the most archeological evidence, including statues of the founders, epitaphs, papyri and a wall with inscriptions found in modern Turkey. This wall, which was built in the city of Oinoanda in the 2nd century AD and displayed in the public square for everyone to see, contains what remains of an Epicurean treatise written by a local philosopher named Diogenes of Oinoanda.

Conclusion

Epicureanism has often been considered a precursor to modern Secular Humanist and Atheist movements, but one can wonder if Epicureanism could not be considered a religion, with its founding fathers, its icons, and its community of life. Many practices of its adherents such as feasts, worship and confessions remind us of Christianity.

Although in many ways Epicureanism can be seen as a salvation religion, promising happiness to those who join, in others, it subverted established religious traditions. The Epicurean gods did not interfere in human affairs and common features of religion such as miracles and a belief in an afterlife were very forcibly rejected. While pondering this question, it is important to remember that during pagan Antiquity there was no notion of a strict separation between the religious and the secular as there is today. These were, after all, men and women of their times.

It is unclear whether Epicurus himself imagined his teachings reaching beyond the cultural context of Ancient Greece, but by the time of the Roman Empire, Diogenes of Oinoanda expressed universalist aspirations:

“For, while the various segments of the earth give different people a different country, the whole compass of this world gives all people a single country, the entire earth, and a single home, the world.”

Sources:

The Epicurus Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia (Hackett Classics)

Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers (Oxford University Press)

Cicero, On Ends (Cambridge University Press)

Lucretius, On the Nature of Things (Hackett Classics)

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Letters on Ethics (The University of Chicago Press)

The Epicurean Inscription (Bibliopolis)

https://www.english.enoanda.cat/the_inscription.html

Catherine Wilson, Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press)

Voula Tsouna, The Ethics of Philodemus (Oxford University Press)

Les Epicuriens (La Pleiade)

Renée Koch Piettre, Comment Peut-on Etre Dieu?: La Secte d’Epicure (Belin)