“Epicurus, however, in a single household, and one of slender means at that, maintained a whole host of friends, united by a wonderful bond of affection. And this is still a feature of present day Epicureanism.” From Cicero’s On Ends

Epicurus and the Founders

Epicurus was born in an Athenian settlement in the island of Samos in the late 4th century BC. One ancient biography mentions he was of noble birth although it is also stated that he started out sustaining himself financially as a school teacher, which would indicate that he was of modest means in his early life. He started practicing philosophy at an early age, either 12 or 14, depending on the source. He and his family ended up leaving Samos and moving to different cities as a result of the chaos in the Greek world that followed the death of Alexander the Great. During his travels he would study philosophy under different teachers and would eventually build his own philosophical system inspired by the long dead founder of atomism, Democritus. Epicurus promoted the following worldview: the universe is made of atoms and void and subject to the laws of physics without divine intervention, the world can be understood through an empiricist epistemology, and pleasure, pursued intelligently and ethically, is the goal of life.

His first converts were of his own family: his three brothers and a slave named Mys. During his travels, he met other men who would play an enormous role in his life, most notably Metrodurus, Hermarchus and Polyaenus. Together, this group of friends would create the philosophical school that would become known as the Garden. Unlike what is often assumed, Epicurean philosophy is not just the work of a single man. While Epicurus was the founder of the school that bears his name, the writings of these co-founders would be considered foundational by Epicureans throughout the centuries.

By the time Epicurus with his friends settled in Athens, he had a strong enough network to start competing with the other major philosophical schools of Plato and Aristotle. As the Epicureans gained converts and financial support, they were able to purchase property, a garden, in the outskirts of Athens where the community would be able to live and practice their philosophy. This is where the name of the Epicurean school, the Garden, comes from.

Who Were the Epicureans?

The Garden welcomed people from all walks of life. Unlike other philosophers of the time, Epicurus encouraged the practice of philosophy at any age:

“Let no one delay the study of philosophy while young nor weary of it when old. For no one is either too young or too old for the health of the soul”

One major feature of the Garden was its acceptance of marginalized people. In the Epicurean community, slaves practiced philosophy along with legally free men. The ancient biographer Diogenes Laertius mentions Epicurus’ kindness toward his own slaves in his Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, and informs us that they studied philosophy with him.

It should be noted that in antiquity there was no concept of abolishing slavery. It was considered an inevitable part of a functioning economy, much like wage labor is today. However, within this context, the Epicureans were among those who most strongly called for slaves to be treated humanely. The doxography on the Epicurean wise man in Diogenes Laertius’ biography states the following:

“Nor will he punish his servants; instead he will pity them and pardon any who are of good character.”

Women were also accepted in the community and discussed philosophy along with men. This was unusual for this period where women enjoyed few rights. Among the Epicureans one could find married couples as well as a class of women called hetaerae. These hetaerae, a term often translated as “courtesans”, were considered in ancient Athens to be in a different category than married women or prostitutes. They enjoyed much more freedom in their interpersonal relationships than the average Greek married woman, who was subject to the extremely restrictive societal norms of the time. However, they were financially dependent on male providers, who often competed for their attention. They also tended to be well read and knowledgeable in subjects such as poetry, art or philosophy. One of them, Leontion, is known to have written a treatise defending Epicureanism. The relative freedom of women in the Garden was considered scandalous by traditionally minded intellectual elites. The Roman politician and writer Cicero expressed a mixture of admiration and shock at Leontion’s practice of philosophy:

“…even the courtesan Leontion ventured to write against Theophrastus? She did so, it is true, in a neat and Attic style, but still—. Such was the license assumed by the Garden of Epicurus…”

Epicurean communities had an open door policy and did not only welcome converts. According to the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus it was a common practice to welcome non members to their banquets.

By the time it reached Rome, Epicureanism became a strong presence among certain sectors of the Patricians, the Roman elites. However, the philosophy seems to have also become popular among the not so elite Plebeian classes if we are to believe the aristocratically minded Cicero who mocks the philosophy for appealing to what in his mind were the uneducated common people.

Moral Improvement 

How did a convert to Epicureanism practice philosophy in the Garden?  One important facet of being an Epicurean was learning the teachings of the school. What is the nature of the cosmos? How do we obtain reliable knowledge? What is the best way of life as a human being? These teachings were not just about learning philosophical theory for its own sake. Understanding the universe we live in and human nature was crucial to flourishing and living better lives. For example, learning that natural phenomena such as thunder and earthquakes have rational explanations is meant to protect us from fears caused by superstitions. Learning that we do not need to be rich or famous to be happy helps us overcome the longing for those unnecessary things which are out of our reach and be content with what we have. To this end, study and memorization were techniques used to better integrate these teachings. 

Another major objective of a student in Epicureanism was to become a more ethical and wiser person by cultivating virtues and overcoming vices. Much of the Epicurean literature focused on describing negative personality traits and developing therapeutic methods to overcome them. For example, among the surviving scrolls of Philodemus, we find titles such as On Anger, On Flattery and On Arrogance. This literature presents us with philosophical arguments as well as vivid images of people subject to these emotions, often considered irrational and harmful, in order to persuade readers to work on morally improving themselves.

This aim of achieving wisdom was also achieved by interacting with other members of the community in a practice called Frank Speech. Epicureans were expected to help each other in overcoming personality flaws and becoming better people. This encouraged not only a form of truth telling meant to improve one another’s behavior, but the admission of one’s own flaws in a way that reminds us of Catholic confession. The bonds of friendship encouraged in the Garden required trust and honesty while giving out criticism or praise. This was a difficult balancing act. For example, the two extremes of arrogance and a lack of self-confidence were to be overcome. One had to be careful to express honest criticism without being mean spirited. It was also important to take into account everyone’s unique personality. For instance, you will not talk to someone who is of gentle disposition in the same way you would someone who has a more aggressive personality. Philodemus elaborates on questions such as these in his treatise, On Frank Speech.

Within the Epicurean communities there was a hierarchy between teachers, more advanced in wisdom, and students in philosophy. This hierarchy was not based on social class, which sometimes led to tensions when the student was of a higher social status than the teacher.  A teacher was seen as a sort of doctor of the soul whose role it was to cure students and occasionally other teachers of their vices by mastering different techniques of Frank Speech. This required experience and a capacity to lead by example and inspire trust, as such a position was never a given and had to be earned. This also necessitated, on occasion, the recognition of one’s own faults and shortcomings, as even the sage is still human.

Feasts and Friendship

Epicureans had a strong sense of community and for them this was absolutely central to living a good life. The Garden was not just a place for serious philosophical meditation and moral self improvement. It was also a community that encouraged its followers to enjoy life and find comfort in friendship. The welcoming nature of the Garden was exemplified by the motto inscribed at its entrance. The Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca describes what it is like to be welcomed there:

“When you arrive to Epicurus’ Garden and see what is written there – HERE, GUEST, WILL YOU BE ENTERTAINED: HERE PLEASURE IS THE HIGHEST GOOD – then the keeper of the house will be ready to receive you and, being hospitable and kind, will serve you a plate of porridge and a generous goblet of water and say to you ‘Is this not a fine welcome?’ ‘These gardens,’ he will say, ‘do not stimulate appetite; they appease it. They do not give drinks that make one thirstier, but quench thirst with its natural remedy, which comes free of charge. This is the pleasure in which I have lived to old age’”

This quote emphasizes the spirit of moderation and contentment within the community.  This is not to say that luxury was excluded from the good life; rather that it is something that we must learn to live without and is to be appreciated on occasion. As Epicurus writes in his Letter to Menoeceus:

“Therefore, becoming accustomed to simple, not extravagant, ways of life makes one completely healthy, makes man unhesitant in the face of life’s necessary duties, puts us in a better condition for times of extravagance which occasionally come along, and makes us fearless in the face of chance”

It was an Epicurean tradition to organize feasts and celebrations meant to strengthen the bonds of friendship, the most famous of which is the celebration of the 20th of the month in honor of Epicurus and his close friend and co-founder of the Garden, Metrodorus. This feast and others like it were occasions for celebration and the expression of the sense of brotherhood that existed within the different Garden communities that had spread across the Mediterranean. Seneca quotes Epicurus:

“Look to your dinner companions rather than your dinner, for feeding without a friend is the life of a lion or a wolf”

The different celebrations commemorating the founders of the Epicurean school and members of the early community could be considered of religious significance. A hero worship of a sacred nature became an institutionalized practice among members of the Garden, not unlike the worship of religious founders such as Jesus or the Buddha. In a sense, Epicureans aspired to godhood, not literally becoming immortal after death, as was the belief of some ancient Greek and Roman Mystery religions, but by aspiring to match the wisdom and happiness of the Gods in this lifetime to the degree that is possible in our mortal condition. For this reason, the gods, who according to the teachings of the school were wise and happy beings devoid of the cruelty and destructive passions portrayed in the myths, were worshipped as role models. Epicurus encouraged the worship of the gods not only in the private setting of the Epicurean community, but also in the public sphere. Philodemus quotes Epicurus in his treatise On Piety:

“Again: ‘let us sacrifice to the gods’, he says, ‘piously and well, as is appropriate, and let us do everything well according to the laws, but let us do so not disturbing them at all with our opinions on the topic of those who are best and most majestic’”

Other than the founders of the school and the gods, friendship itself could be considered an object of worship within the Garden. Epicurus referred to friendship as an immortal good and the expression of feelings towards friends could sometimes resemble the deference one might show to a divinity. Epicurus describes a mutual display of affection in one of his letters to his disciple Colotes:

“For as if you had adored what we were then saying, you were suddenly taken with a desire, proceeding not from any natural cause, to come to us, prostrate yourself on the ground, embrace our knees, and use all those gestures to us which are ordinarily practiced by those who adore and pray to the Gods. So that you made us also, reciprocally sanctify and adore you.”

Friendship was celebrated both in life and in death. The passing of a friend was an occasion for mourning and grief but also for festivities and celebration of the deceased person’s memory. Epicurus, in the following quote, encourages us to be grateful towards those who impacted our lives and are no longer with us :

“Sweet is the memory of a dead friend.”

A Community of Support

More than a space where people could get together to practice philosophy, cultivate virtue and celebrate life, the Garden was there to help its members in times of need. Epicureans took friendship seriously and could count on each other for support in a hostile world. Those suffering from illness were cared for. On one occasion, while Athens was subject to starvation caused by siege warfare, the Garden assured the well being of its members. According to the ancient historian Plutarch:

“At this time also, we are told, the philosopher Epicurus sustained the lives of his associates with beans, which he counted out and distributed among them.”

Support could also be political. According to Plutarch, Metrodorus once travelled far to advocate for the safety of a friend who had been arrested while serving as a courtier. It should be noted that in general, it was recommended that the followers of Epicurus avoid politics. However, this recommendation was not a prohibition and circumstances could lead one to pursue a political career. Philodemus wrote a treatise titled On the Good King According to Homer, to Piso, his Roman patron and father-in-law of Julius Caesar, where he gives advice on how to be a good ruler. It was not unheard of for Epicureans to hold positions in politics, though this was the exception rather than the rule.

The central role played by friendship in Epicurus’ philosophy also had an economic element. Epicureans with access to financial means were expected to look out for their friends in need, and be generous with their wealth and cultivate a spirit of philanthropy. In his treatise On Property Management, Philodemus lays out what kind of attitude a philosopher should have towards wealth. Regarding one’s personal finances, a wise man should reject both the extremes of asceticism and greed. He must be neither a beggar nor a miser. It is important to secure your own long-term financial security but beyond that have a detached attitude towards wealth. Epicurus sums up this attitude in one of his Vatican Sayings:

“It is impious to love money unjustly, and shameful to do so justly; for it is unfitting to be sordidly stingy even if one is just”

Rather than save excessive riches beyond one’s needs, an Epicurean should share his wealth with his friends, even after his death in the form of inheritance if he is without children. If he finds himself in financial difficulties, he will make sure that any cuts in his expenses will affect him rather than his friends. Epicurus expresses this approach in another Vatican Saying:

“When the wise man is brought face to face with the necessities of life, he knows how to give rather than receive – such a treasure of self-sufficiency has he found.”

Of course one had to be careful with all sorts of opportunists, flatterers and parasites who would feign friendship in order to take advantage of someone’s generosity. Philodemus wrote a work called On Flattery dealing with this subject.

In regards to what are the best sources of income for an Epicurean philosopher, this comes in the form of gifts in compensation for teaching philosophy. It should be noted however, that he will not sell his ideas and ask for money, but rather accept tokens of gratitude from those who appreciate him. There are other acceptable sources of income, but the most inhumane ones, such as warfare or prostitution, are excluded. In an unfortunate passage however, Philodemus does justify slavery arguing that manual labor is not fitting for a philosopher. While we should remember that Philodemus’ target audience were members of the Roman ruling elites such as his patron Piso and that he does call for the humane treatment of slaves in other passages, this is a troubling statement.

Not all Epicureans, however, were opposed to manual labor as part of a philosophical life. Diogenes of Oinoanda imagines a utopian society in which everyone adopts Epicurean values:

“But if we assume it to be possible, then truly the life of the gods will pass to men. For everything will be full of justice and mutual love, and there will come to be no need of fortifications or laws and all the things which we contrive on account of one another. As for the necessities derived from agriculture, since we shall have no slaves at that time (for indeed [we ourselves shall plough] and dig and tend [the plants] and [divert] rivers and watch over [the crops) (…) such activities, [in accordance with what is] needful, will interrupt the continuity of the [shared] study of philosophy; for [the] farming operations [will provide what our] nature wants.”

Spreading the Epicurean Gospel

Already during the lifetime of Epicurus, the Athenian Garden was not the only Epicurean community to exist and its members were constantly in contact with each other. Throughout the centuries, Epicurean communities appeared in the three continents surrounding the Mediterranean and later became, along with Stoicism, one of the main philosophies adopted within the Roman Empire. 

They used multiple methods to spread their ideas. In an era where no printing technology existed, the only method to preserve the teachings of the school, other than memorization, was copying Epicurean treatises by hand. A surviving papyrus written by the Epicurean Demetrius Lacon informs us of techniques used to avoid errors while copying treatises which could lead to distortions in the understanding of essential doctrines.

Another method used to spread the ideas of the Garden was to write short summaries of the key doctrines in the form of letters and collections of maxims in order to make them accessible to those whose lives were too busy to read the longer writings of the school. It also served as memory-aids to help remember essential teachings.

Travelling and networking with powerful people to gain support among the elites was another approach. For example, Philodemus moved to Italy and befriended Piso. This led to a patron-client relationship which helped establish an Epicurean community in Naples and supported the Epicurean library in Herculaneum which housed many papyrus scrolls, some of which have been partially preserved until this day.

Philodemus and other Epicureans in Italy started writing texts intended for a Roman audience and adapted to this new cultural context. For example, the first philosophical treatises written in Latin were from the Epicureans Amafinius and Rabririus. However, the most successful of them all was the epic poem written by Lucretius. Lucretius explains why he thought poetry was a good way to spread these ideas:

“Since this philosophy of ours often appears somewhat off-putting to those who have not experienced it, and most people recoil back from it, I have preferred to expound it to you in harmonious Pierian poetry and, so to speak, coat it with sweet honey from the Muses.”

Another way to publicize the Garden was visually, for example with statues of the founders. A character in one of Cicero’s dialogues states the following in regards to Epicurean memorabilia:

“Still, I could hardly forget Epicurus, even if I wanted to. The members of our Epicurean family have his likeness not only in paintings, but even engraved on their cups and rings.”

Of all the Ancient Mediterranean philosophical schools, the Garden is the one that left behind the most archeological evidence, including statues of the founders, epitaphs, papyri and a wall with inscriptions found in modern Turkey. This wall, which was built in the city of Oinoanda in the 2nd century AD and displayed in the public square for everyone to see, contains what remains of an Epicurean treatise written by a local philosopher named Diogenes of Oinoanda.

Conclusion

Epicureanism has often been considered a precursor to modern Secular Humanist and Atheist movements, but one can wonder if Epicureanism could not be considered a religion, with its founding fathers, its icons, and its community of life. Many practices of its adherents such as feasts, worship and confessions remind us of Christianity. 

Although in many ways Epicureanism can be seen as a salvation religion, promising happiness to those who join, in others, it subverted established religious traditions. The Epicurean gods did not interfere in human affairs and common features of religion such as miracles and a belief in an afterlife were very forcibly rejected. While pondering this question, it is important to remember that during pagan Antiquity there was no notion of a strict separation between the religious and the secular as there is today. These were, after all, men and women of their times.

It is unclear whether Epicurus himself imagined his teachings reaching beyond the cultural context of Ancient Greece, but by the time of the Roman Empire, Diogenes of Oinoanda expressed universalist aspirations:

“For, while the various segments of the earth give different people a different country, the whole compass of this world gives all people a single country, the entire earth, and a single home, the world.”

 *

Sources:

The Epicurus Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia (Hackett Classics)

Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers (Oxford University Press)

Cicero, On Ends (Cambridge University Press)

Lucretius, On the Nature of Things (Hackett Classics)

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Letters on Ethics (The University of Chicago Press)

The Epicurean Inscription (Bibliopolis)

https://www.english.enoanda.cat/the_inscription.html 

Catherine Wilson, Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press)

Voula Tsouna, The Ethics of Philodemus (Oxford University Press)

Les Epicuriens (La Pleiade)

Renée Koch Piettre, Comment Peut-on Etre Dieu?: La Secte d’Epicure (Belin)

Ciciero, On the Nature of the Gods 

https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/cicero-on-the-nature-of-the-gods

Plutarch, Against Colotes 

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0397%3Asection%3D17

 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0397%3Asection%3D33

Plutarch, Life of Demetrius

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Demetrius*.html